BIBLIOGRAPHY: RESEARCH ON SERVICE-LEARNING & TEEN PREGNANCY/RISK BEHAVIOR PREVENTION

Prepared by Steve Meyer and Kate Sandel, RMC Research, 2001

In response to the ongoing problem of teenage pregnancy, a variety of programs have been created and implemented. These programs may be school or community based. They range in foci from delaying the initiation of sexual activity to increasing effective contraceptive use. Methods employed include: education, increased access to contraceptive services, school-based clinics, multi-component efforts and youth development programs. Some youth development programs incorporate service as a means of affecting behavior. Of interest to this literature review is the effectiveness of prevention programs with a service-learning component.

The theoretical benefits of service-learning make it a logical match for risk prevention programs. A study of the literature produces evidence to back such a claim. A reduction of pregnancy rates and sexual activity is a noted effect of several programs featuring a service component. Of special note are the evaluations of the Teen Outreach Program, the Quantum Opportunity Program, and the Reach for Health CYS program.

The results of those evaluations draw a direct connection between service-learning and pregnancy prevention. Other evidence of support can be found in the literature as well. Risk behaviors appear to be interrelated; involvement in one risk behavior makes one more likely to engage in other risk behaviors. Due to the linkage between risk behaviors, evaluations on programs utilizing a service component to reduce other risk behaviors can lend support to its potential effects on teen pregnancy rates.

A compilation of best practices of pregnancy prevention programs yields further support to service-learning's promise at risk behavior prevention. Service-learning is even cited as a best practice in some evaluations. Best Practices include:

• Strengthen social, emotional, behavioral, cognitive and moral competencies.
  Several studies have shown service-learning to have a positive effect on personal and cognitive development.
• Build self efficacy.
  This is frequently quoted as a result of service-learning experiences.
• Include experiential activities designed to personalize information.
  Service-learning includes a experiential education component by nature, allowing the participant to use their knowledge and reflect on their actions.
• Provide life options.
  Some argue that the underlying risk factors for teenage pregnancy must be addressed, such as poverty and low life goals. Service-learning has been tapped as a link to workforce development and increased graduation rate.

Evidence is beginning to grow supporting service-learning as part of a prevention strategy against teen pregnancy and other risk behaviors. Evidence of impact include:

Service-learning helps prevent teen pregnancy and risky sexual activity:

• Students who engaged in service-learning had substantially lower teen pregnancy rates than non-participants, even after controlling for socioeconomic difference and other student characteristics. (Allen, Philliber, Herrling & Kuppermine, 1997)
• Participation in service-learning showed a marginally significant effect on reducing teen pregnancy. (Melchior, 1999)
• Service-learning students were less likely to become teen parents; these results held over five years of analysis. (Hahn, Leavitt, & Aaron, 1994)
• Students who participated in community outreach and a health curriculum had reduced rates of early and unprotected sex and were less likely to have had recent sex or recent sex without a condom or birth control. (O'Donnell et al, 1999)
• Service-Learning helps reduce youth participation on other risk behaviors:
  Middle school students who took part in service-learning programs showed a reduction in arrests. (Melchior, 1999)
• Service-learning participants showed substantially lower rates of academic suspension and school failure than control students, even after controlling for socioeconomic difference and entry differences. (Allen, Philliber, Herrling & Kuppermine, 1997)
• Participants of service-learning were more likely to graduate from high school than control group. (Hahn, Leavitt, & Aaron, 1994)

These studies look at individual program effects. Overviews of teen pregnancy prevention programs highlight service-learning as a best practice and promising practice (John et al., 2000; Kirby, 2001). Experiential education is also noted as being an important component of effective prevention programs (Kirby et al, 1994; Kirby & Coyle, 1997)

The following resources lend support to the connection between service-learning and prevention of teen pregnancy and other risk behaviors.

One of several studies of the Teen Outreach Program (TOP), a school-based prevention program that links volunteer work to classroom discussions. Other studies' results include reduced pregnancy and drop-out rates varying between 15-50% over seven years of data for program participants relative to a comparison group. This study looks at whether certain aspects of a program affect its success. Program participants were young people identified as at risk for significant behavioral problems, and similar, non-participating selected from same sites for comparison. Self-report pre/post questionnaires were used to assess students' problem behaviors. In the 66 program sites studied, the promotion of autonomy and relatedness with peers was linked to lower level of problem behaviors in middle school sites while no difference was found in high school sites.

Allen, J. P., Philliber, S., & Hoggson, N. (1990). School-based prevention of teen-age pregnancy and school dropout: Process evaluation of the national replication of the Teen Outreach Program. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(4), 505-524.

One of several studies of the Teen Outreach Program (TOP), a school-based prevention program that links volunteer work to classroom discussions. Other studies' results include reduced pregnancy and drop-out rates of 30-50% for program participants relative to comparison group over four years of data. This study looks at which program aspects seem to be most salient (what works best, for whom, under what conditions). Program participants were young people identified as at risk for significant behavioral problems, and similar non-participating were selected from the same sites for comparison. Self-report pre/post questionnaires were used to determine students' problem behaviors. In the 35 program sites studied, the program was found to be more successful with older students (above 10th grade) and when the service component was more intense. Also of note, the success of the program at preventing problem behaviors did not appear related to program participant gender or membership in a minority group. The helper-therapy and empowerment theories are discussed in connection to program success at preventing problem behavior.

Allen, J. P., Philliber, S., Herrling, S., & Kupermine, G. P. (1997). Preventing teen pregnancy and academic failure: Experimental evaluation of a developmentally based approach. Child Development, 68(4).

This experimental evaluation of the Teen Outreach Program utilizes random assignment of student program and control groups. This evaluation assesses the program's effectiveness at preventing teenage pregnancy and school failure. Students at 25 sites were evaluated at program entry and at the completion of the nine-month program. Rates of teen pregnancy, school failure, and academic suspension were substantially lower in program participants at program exit than students in control group, even after controlling for socioeconomic and other differences. These findings offer support for the Teen Outreach Program and other interventions that focus on broad youth development to help prevent risk behaviors in adolescents, rather than focusing on individual problem behaviors.

Hahn, A., Leavitt, T. & Aaron, P. (1994). Evaluation of the Quantum Opportunities Program (QOP). Did the program work? A report on the post secondary outcomes and cost-effectiveness of the QOP program (1989-1993). Massachusetts. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 385 621).

The Quantum Opportunities Program (QOP) is a year-round, multi-year, comprehensive service program for disadvantaged youth launched in five sites in 1989. The program combines education activities with development activities and service. At each site, adult mentors worked with groups of 25 students who received hourly stipends and bonuses for activities. The study included student surveys and subgroup comparisons. The evaluation showed that QOP participants, when compared to comparison students, were more likely to graduate from high school, go on to post secondary education, and take part in volunteer work and were less likely to become teen parents or be unemployed. These results were consistent over the five years of analysis. Program components highlighted as effective were caring mentors, early age of program participant initiation, sense of community, multiple services, inclusion of community-based activities, quality staff, financial resources and financial incentives. Cost benefit analysis showed that for every dollar spent in the program, $3.68 is gained.

Johns, M. J., Moncloa, F., & Gong, E. J. (2000). Teen pregnancy prevention programs: Linking research and practice. Journal of Extension, 38 (4). [On Line] Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/2000 august/a1.html.

This article looks at "best practices" from a literature review and field study of teen pregnancy prevention programs, connecting lessons learned to ways the Cooperative Extension Human Resource program can strengthen pregnancy prevention services in three urban California counties. The literature review highlights the complexity of adolescent pregnancy and variety of programs used to combat it (educational, contraception services, school-based health centers, youth development programs, and multi-component programs). Service-learning and youth development programs are highlighted as effective approaches for teen pregnancy prevention practitioners. Best practices were identified including involvement of family and other caring adults, male involvement, cultural relevance, community wide campaigns, programs to improve employment opportunities, sexuality education and AIDS education programs, outreach in teen pregnancy programs, and access to reproductive services.

Kirby, D. (2001). Emerging answers: Research findings on programs to reduce teen pregnancy. Washington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.

This updated research review examines evaluation research on programs to prevent teen pregnancy featuring programs that encourage teens to remain abstinent or use contraception when they have sex. The review examines over 250 prevention program evaluations that were selected based on criterion for quality research. The review concludes that "service-learning programs may have the strongest evidence of any intervention that they reduce actual teen pregnancy rates while the youth are participating in the program. Among the programs with the best evidence of effectiveness are the Teen Outreach Program and Reach for Health service-learning program. Although the research does not clearly indicate why service-learning is so successful, several possibilities seem plausible: participants develop relationships with program facilitators, they gain a sense of autonomy and feel more competent in their relationships with peers and adults, and they feel empowered by the knowledge that they can make a difference in the lives of others. All such factors, in turn, may help increase teenagers' motivation to avoid pregnancy. In addition, participating in supervised activities-especially after school-may simply reduce the opportunities teens have to engage in risky behavior, including unprotected sex." (page 8)

Kirby, D. (1997). No easy answers: Research findings on programs to reduce teen pregnancy. Washington, DC: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.

This in-depth research paper summarizes research on the effectiveness of sexual risk behavior prevention programs. The paper categorizes 80 prevention programs into 1) education programs, 2) programs to improve accessibility of contraceptives, 3) education programs for parents and their families, 4) multi-component programs, and 5) youth development programs. Findings show reducing that adolescent pregnancy is possible, but challenging. The research also suggests that no single or simple approach will markedly reduce teen pregnancy requiring attention to postponement of sexual activity and contraception use, nearly all programs evaluated produced some outcome deemed socially desirable, and no current research shows delay of adolescent sex from abstinence only programs. The review concludes that the few studies of youth development programs that have been completed provide some evidence of reduced pregnancy and birth rates.

Melchior, A. (1999, July). Summary Report: National Evaluation of Learn and Serve America. Waltham, MA: Center for Human Resources, Brandeis University.

This evaluation of the national Learn and Serve America program examines program effects in seventeen middle and high schools at the end of the program year (1995-96 school year) and a year later (spring 1997). The evaluation included surveys and analysis of school records for 1,000 program participants and comparison group members, teacher surveys, telephone interviews with community partners, and on-site interviews and observation of program activities. Results at the conclusion of the program year showed positive effects on a range of civic and educational attitudes and behaviors. A marginally significant effect on teenage pregnancy was also noted for program participants. Middle school participants also showed a reduction in arrests. Participants rated their experience with Learn and Serve very positively. A cost analysis estimated that investment returned four dollars for every program dollar spent.

Miller, B., Card, J. J., Paikoff, R. L., & Peterson, J. L. (Eds.). (1992). Preventing adolescent pregnancy: Model program and evaluations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

This book highlights model adolescent pregnancy prevention programs that have included rigorous evaluations. The book highlights diverse programs with foci varying between postponing sexual involvement to emphasizing effective contraceptive use. Most programs are school based, with some agency based. Each chapter has a description of the program, a summary of the evaluation used and the results found, most showing gains in positive behaviors.

Chapter six features the Teen Outreach Program, combining life option education with community service to help prevent risk behaviors. Looking at five years of data, with emphasis on the fifth year, positive results are noted in four major behavior areas. Program participants had significantly lower pregnancy rates, lower rates of suspension, lower course failure, and lower drop out rates (controlling for grades, prior rates of suspension, failing courses). One sample of data was randomly selected (others employed comparison groups), yet all samples showed similar results. The Teen Outreach Program is the only program utilizing a service-learning component featured in this book; however, two other programs are presented that connect experiential education to reductions in risk behavior.

The book concludes with a summary of lessons learned from these evaluations of adolescent pregnancy prevention programs as follows: program goals and objectives must be clear and specific; the target population must be relatively young; the program should be intensive; the program should be comprehensive; and, the program should consider leveraging parent and peer support.

O'Donnell, L., Steuve, A., San Doval, A., Duran, R., Haber, D., Atnafou, R., Johnson, N., Grant, U., Murray, H., Juhn, G., Tang, J., Piessens, P. (1999). The effectiveness of Reach for Health community youth service program in reducing early and unprotected sex among urban middle school students. American Journal of Public Health, 89(2), 176-181.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a Community Youth Service (CYS) program at reducing sexual risk behavior in Latino and African American adolescents. The Reach for Health CYS program combines a teenage health classroom curriculum with an organized service component. This study looks at 7th and 8th grade students attending two urban middle schools, both serving essentially similar student populations. One school randomly assigned students into the CYS program or a curriculum only class. CYS programs varied between grades, with the 8th grade service program being slightly more intensive. A second school was used for comparison. Students were surveyed at baseline and six month follow-up. Results show that the CYS program reduced early and unprotected sex, with 8th graders displaying the highest effect. Students in the comparison school had the largest increase in sexually active students. Students who received the curriculum and participated in community outreach were less likely to have had recent sex, or recent sex without a condom or birth control. A weaker relationship between reduction in risky behaviors and participation in the curriculum only was found, with special education students yielding the largest changes in behaviors.

Panico, A. (1998). Service learning as a community initiation. Reaching Today's Youth: The Community Circle Caring Journal, 3(1), 37-41.

This anecdotal look at the impacts of service-learning tells the story of a troubled young male being sent to an alternative school and finding dramatic success after beginning volunteer work at Habitat for Humanity on the weekends. His personal transformation began the school's journey into initiating community service Saturdays. Student response was huge, and after a year, service-learning was added to school curriculum with three construction trade classes. A second program in the medical/health care field was then formed. Service-learning is described as an effective means to motivate and engage students with behavior problems and initiate them into a community of learners.

Scales, P. (1990). Developing capable young people: An alternative strategy for prevention programs. Journal of Early Adolescence, 10(4), 420-438.

This article argues that the failure of present adolescent prevention programs is due to misguided efforts to address risk behaviors individually instead of using a holistic approach to improve cognitive, behavioral and social capabilities in youth and due to a negative view of the adolescent stage of development. According to Scales, risk behaviors do not occur in isolation, and a policy framework to develop healthy, capable young adults is outlined. Several promising strategies are identified: programs that combat poverty, initiatives that improve parental involvement, reform in the middle grades with emphasis on critical thinking skills, and efforts to increase community involvement. Community service programs are highlighted as a vehicle to promote self-esteem and self-efficacy.

The following articles have theoretical connections to service-learning and the prevention of risk behaviors. Though not directly linked, they can provide support in building a framework for service-leaning in pregnancy prevention programs.

Benthin, A., Slovic, P. & Severson, H. (1993). A psychometric study of adolescent risk perception. Journal of Adolescence, 16, 153-168.

This article illustrates the interconnection of risk behaviors and that programs to prevent risk behaviors must be able to address multiple problems.

The study investigated adolescent risk perception, looking at 41 students' perception of risk associated with 30 activities (12 considered problem behaviors, 18 considered socially acceptable activities) and the students' frequency in engaging in said activities. The study found that young people who engage in one form of risk taking behavior are relatively more likely to engage in another.

Catalano, R. F., Berglund, M. L., Ryan, J., Lonczak, H. S., & Hawkins, J. D. (1998). Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs [On-Line]. Available: http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/PositiveYouthDev99/

From Executive Summary: "This Study concluded that a wide range of positive youth development approaches can result in positive youth outcomes and the prevention of youth problem behavior. Nineteen effective programs showed positive changes in youth behavior, including significant improvements in interpersonal skills, quality of peer and adult relationships, self-control, problem solving, cognitive competencies, self efficacy, commitment to schooling and academic achievement. Twenty-four effective programs showed significant improvements in problem behaviors, including drug and alcohol use, school misbehavior, aggressive behavior, violence, truancy, high-risk sexual behavior and smoking. Although a broad range of strategies produced these results, the themes common to success involved methods to: strengthen social, emotional, behavioral, cognitive and moral competencies; build self-efficacy; shape messages of family and community about standards for positive youth behavior; increase healthy bonding with adults, peers and young children; expand opportunities and recognition for youth who engage in positive behavior and activities; provide structure and consistency in program delivery; and intervene with youth for at least nine months."

Donnelly, B. W., & Davis-Berman, J. (1994) A review of the chance to grow project: A care project for pregnant and parenting adolescents. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 11, 493-506.

This article highlights a program that is able to affect risk behaviors by improving decision making.

The Chance to Grow project targets pregnant and parenting teens providing them, along with their male partners and respective families, with intensive decision making counseling and case management services. Major components of counseling include: decisional balance sheets, stress inoculation and role-playing. This study follows program participants over a two year period (at first contact, baby's birth, six-month post-, 12-month post- and 24 month post-partum) and a control group. Results show a much higher rate of release for adoption (25% of program participants released compared to 4% of pregnant adolescents nationally), increased school retention (86% of clients attending or had completed school at 6 month post-partum, compared to 61% of control), improved employment status at 6 months, and reduced sexual activity (55% of clients claimed to be sexually active a year after giving birth, compared to 82% of control group).

Dryfoos, J. G. (1990). A review of interventions to prevent pregnancy. In A. R. Stiffman & R. A. Feldman (Eds.), Contraception, pregnancy and parenting. Vol. 4. Advances in adolescent mental health. (pp. 121-135). London, England: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

This article provides background on the field of pregnancy prevention.

The article presents an overview of pregnancy prevention interventions with a summary of best practices based on a review of literature, agency reports and program observation. Dryfoos discusses methodological concerns for evaluating effectiveness of interventions (little information on abortion rates, lack of control, contaminated control, etc). The article describes sex education and skill enhancement programs, attempts to improve access and use of contraception (school based clinics, family planning clinics, condom distribution and male oriented programs) and life option interventions. The importance of collaboration and the multiple program-planning components is highlighted.

Duckenfield, M. & Swanson, L. (1992). Service learning: Meeting the needs of youth at risk. A dropout prevention research report. Clemson, SC: National Dropout Prevention Center. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 348 622)

This report provides an overview of service-learning with particular utility for those wishing to begin a service-learning program in their school, emphasizing its potential to prevent student drop-out. The same arguments could be used to support its use for other risk behaviors.

The report discusses service-learning and expected outcomes (personal growth, social growth, intellectual growth, citizenship, preparation), ideas for integrating service-learning into your curriculum, essential components of service-learning, service-learning continuum, service-learning activities and resources. The introduction points out that quality service-learning combines components of successful programs for at-risk youth, highlighting a natural match. The reports presents research supporting positive developmental outcomes for participants (social, personal, academic) with some anecdotal excerpts highlighting such gains and concludes that these successes could lead to dropout prevention.

Elias, M.J., Gara, M. A., Schuyler, T. F., Branden-Muller, L. R., & Sayette, M. A. (1991). The promotion of social competence: Longitudinal study of a prevention school-based program. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 409-417.

This article highlights a program that is able to affect risk behaviors by improving adolescent decision making.

Improving Social Awareness-Social Problem Solving Project (SA-SPS), a two-year, multi-phase, intensive elementary school-based primary prevention program aimed at developing social competence was followed up six years later. The study included students who participated in the program before middle school and a control group; those who received decision making/problem solving lessons in elementary schools were also separated into high and medium levels of program fidelity. Findings suggest those that received ISA-SPS showed higher levels of positive pro-social behavior and lower negative anti-social behavior. Effects were found for both males and females, though the two groups differed in areas of impact. The discussion concludes that early intervention is good, but not sufficient (a booster, not a panacea) and that program follow-up is necessary for reinforement.

Kirby, D., et al.(1994). School-based programs to reduce sexual risk behaviors: A review of effectiveness. Public Health Reports, 109, 339-360.

This article describes experiential education as a successful component of prevention curriculum.

This paper synthesizes 23 evaluations of school-based prevention programs that measure impact on student behavior (not just knowledge) and were published in a peer review journal. Six common characteristics of curricula that successfully delays initiation of sex are identified, including providing information through experiential activities designed to personalize information and providing modeling and practice in communication and negotiation skills.

Kirby, D., & Coyle, K. (1997). School-based programs to reduce sexual risk taking behavior. Children and Youth Services Review, 19 (5), 415-436.

This article describes experiential education as a successful component of prevention curriculum.

This paper synthesizes 35 evaluations of school-based prevention programs that address sexual risk behavior. All evaluations feature an experimental design, measure impact on student behavior (not just knowledge) and were published in a peer review journal. Programs studied included sex and HIV education programs, school-based health centers, and school-condom availability programs. Most studies have limitations, and evidence suggests that few programs produced credible evidence that they successfully reduced sexual risk behaviors. These studies found also found no statistically significant evidence that these programs increased sexual behavior, a common fear. An overview of nine common components of successful curriculum is noted. Several of which are related to or components of service-learning.

Ohannessian, C. M., & Crockett, L. J. (1993). A longitudinal investigation of the relationship between educational investment and adolescent sexual activity. Journal of Adolescent Research, 8(2), 167-182.

This article presents findings suggesting that if girls are more involved in school, they are less likely to be sexually active. This study examines the cause/effect relationship between educational investment and sexual activity. 479 low-middle class, white, rural students were surveyed when they were in the 8th, 9th and 10th grades and then again. Two years later when they were in the 10th, 11th, and 12th grades. Results indicate that girls who had higher levels of educational investment had less frequent sexual activity two years later. In particular, better academic grades predicted lower rates of sexual activity. However, there were no findings indicating that sexual activity predicted less educational investment among girls. In contrast, among boys, sexual activity at the first survey predicted future lower educational investment, particularly less involvement in academic activities. This suggests different developmental paths for boys and girls. The results supported the hypothesis that sexual activity predicts later educational investment for boys (same not true for girls). Alternately, educational activity, particularly grades in school, predicts later sexual activity among girls.

Pereira, C., & Rodriguez, K. (1997). Linking violence prevention and good social studies: Research and development. Social Education, 61(5), 282-89.

The article presents an evaluation of service-learning findings from the first year of a violence prevention program.

This evaluation focuses on The Youth for Justice violence prevention study, located in 19 fifth and sixth-grade classrooms in Chicago and Los Angeles. The article outlines the problem of adolescent violence and how a curriculum of law-related education, conflict resolution, and service-learning creates a comprehensive prevention program. The program features intensive collaborations with community resource people, including law enforcement officers, lawyers and politicians. Results from a pre/post survey indicate that participants displayed a higher level of knowledge about law and governance, as well as a drop in beliefs about acceptability of aggression. Survey results also show more positive attitudes towards the community and more pro-social behavior among both boys and girls. Scores on Iowa Test of Basic Skills show dramatic improvement in social studies. Focus group interviews indicated youth use violence less often when confronted with a problem, and try to use their mediation skills at home.

Resnick, M.D., Bearman, P.S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., Tabor, J., Beuring, T., Sieving, R. E., Shew, M., Ireland, M., Bearinger, L. H., & Udry, J. R. (1997) Protecting adolescents from harm. Findings from the national longitudinal study on adolescent health. Journal of American Medical Association, 278 (10), 823-832.

This study attempts to identify particular risk and protective factors at the school, family and individual level. It looks at results from a national survey of students and home interviews conducted a year apart. Areas of measurement include emotional distress, suicidal thoughts, violence, cigarette use, marijuana use, alcohol use, age of sexual debut and pregnancy history. The results suggest that parent-connectedness and perceived school connectedness were protective against every health risk behavior except history of pregnancy. A greater number of shared activities with parents and a perceived parental disapproval of adolescent sex were showed connected to no pregnancy history for sexually active students.

Snow, D. L., Tebes, J. K., Arthur, M. W., & Tapasak, R. C. (1992). Two-year follow-up of a social-cognitive intervention to prevent substance use. Journal of Drug Education, 22, 101-114.

This article argues that social problems are best prevented by teaching coping skills and social influence factors and supporting by personal growth activities, rather than providing straight education.

The Adolescent Decision Making (ADM) Program is a multi-year, classroom based intervention to prevent substance abuse through the instruction of coping skills. This study is a two-year follow-up to identify effects on drug, alcohol and tobacco use. The study focuses on eighth graders, half of whom participated in ADM when in the sixth grade, and half who serve as control. Subjects rated the frequency of their use of nine substances (tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, LSD, amphetamines, barbiturates, heroin, inhalants, cocaine). The results suggest that the program reduced tobacco use.

Youniss, J., McLellan, J. A., Su, Y., & Yates M. (1999). The role of community service in identity development: Normative, unconventional and deviant orientations. Journal of Adolescent Research, 14(2), 248 -261.

This article describes the impact of community service on developing pro-social behavior and reducing deviant behavior.

The authors studied responses from 13,000 high school seniors to identify predictors of normative, unconventional, and deviant orientations. Normative behaviors included conventional political involvement, religious attendance and value placed on religion. Unconventional behaviors included political activities like boycotting and demonstrating. Deviant behavior was measured through marijuana use. The frequency of community service was the strongest indicator predicting these variables, more so than background characteristics and participation in part-time work. Participation in after school activities and part time work were also found to positively affected service involvement. Background characteristics, including attending Catholic school, being female, having high socioeconomic status, and coming from an intact family, also predicted service involvement. The authors argue that community service "affords youth a developmental opportunity to partake of traditions that transcend the material moment and existential present".